Hence, the study firstly conducts a critical review on the issue of urban crime in relation to urban design, planning, and architecture disciplines. Five decades of different studies on urban crime, crime prevention through environmental design, and fear of crime indicate an implicit and gradual movement from deterministic to possibilistic propositions in exploring the relationships between urban crime and environmental design both in theory and practice. Urban Crime, CPTED, Urban Morphology, FOC, Safe Place, Spatiality and SocialityÄifferent conceptions of crime in design practice, sociology, environmental psychology, and crimi- nology indicate an extensive articulation of crime in relation to the built environment and urban form in the city. Safe Place by Design: Urban Crime in Relation to Spatiality and SocialityĪUTHORS: Hesam Kamalipour, Mohsen Faizi, Gholamhossein Memarian American Sociological Review, 44, 588-608. Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach. Therefore, while technology is helpful in many ways, it also provides tempting targets for motivated offenders.Cohen, L. An increase in the use of the Internet for commerce makes users potential targets of online consumer fraud.Researchers argue that internet fraud occurs because of a lack of capable guardians, such as network security systems. Internet fraud is a common crime seen today because of rapid developments in technology. This trend not only exposed a higher number of consumers as suitable targets, but also made businesses more vulnerable to motivated offenders and fraud. In addition, people buying more items from retailers and wholesalers increased the level of business activities at various establishments. This increases the possibility of both spouses and their cars being targeted by motivated offenders. For example, in the case of a working couple, typically both partners or spouses had cars. Routine activity theorists proposed that motivated offenders had access to an attractive pool of targets in all situations where consumers could afford to purchase high-value items. Researchers proposed that this trend of size shrinkage in valuable goods such as television sets, radios, record players, and so on, made them more attractive as targets for motivated offenders, because they were easy to carry away and conceal. According to Consumer Reports Buying Guide, the consumer goods market witnessed a growth trend in the purchase of small, lightweight items. In addition, there was an increase of 71 percent in consumer expenditures for motor vehicles and parts during this time. For example, the shipment of electronic household appliances increased from 56.2 to 119.7 million units. Between 19, sales of consumer goods increased. Therefore, the market for durable goods expanded and there was a boom in the consumer goods industry, with items such as television sets and automobiles leading the trend. With more people going to work, travel away from home became commonplace. There was also an increase in women's participation in the workforce. When World War II ended, there was a global economic boom accompanied by a spurt in technology, employment, and disposable incomes. Theorists of routine activity theory suggest that changes in purchase trends after World War II are another important factor leading to criminal victimization. Environmental factors, such as the presence of security cameras in homes and offices, high walls, or spiked fences around a house or neighborhood, can also serve as capable guardians against crimes. Examples of common capable civilian guardians include parents and neighbors. Cohen and Felson suggest that civilians are common capable guardians in a society. On the other hand, if the offenders discover an absence of tough security systems, they view this as an opportunity to rob the bank. For example, when motivated offenders notice that their target bank is protected by security guards and the vaults are equipped with modern alarm systems, they are discouraged from robbing the bank. The routine activity theory suggests that a motivated offender is discouraged from committing a crime in the presence of capable guardians.In contrast, when a motivated offender spots a suitable target in the absence of capable guardians, the offender is more likely to commit a crime. Common examples of capable guardians include police officers, security guards, parents, neighbors, and friends. A capable guardian is someone who guards or protects something (or a person) against crimes.
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